cara membuat huruf aneh di facebook

Tutor :tekan terus ALT + Nomor* di sisi kiri dah nulis nomor kemudian lepas alt nya dan "enter"




Contoh : untuk kata ™ nomor : 0153

Copyright (©) Alt, 0, 1, 6, 9
Trademark ( ™ ) Alt, 0, 1, 5, 3
Registered (®) Alt, 0, 1, 7, 4
Bullet ( • ) Alt, 0, 1, 4, 9
Ellipsis (…) Alt, 0, 1, 3, 3
“EN” Dash ( – ) Alt, 0, 1, 5, 0
“EM” Dash ( — ) Alt, 0, 1, 5, 1
Paragraph (Pilcrow) ( ¶ ) Alt, 0, 1, 8, 2
Pound (£) Alt 0, 1, 6, 3
Euro ( € ) Alt, 0, 1, 2, 8
Cents (¢) Alt, 0, 1, 6, 2
One-half (½) Alt, 0, 1, 8, 9
French accent (à) Alt, 0, 2, 2, 4
French accent (ç) Alt, 0, 2, 3, 1
French accent (è) Alt, 0, 2, 3, 2
French accent (é) Alt, 0, 2, 3, 3
French accent (ê) Alt, 0, 2, 3, 4
German accent (ü) Alt, 0, 2, 5, 2
Spanish accent (ñ) Alt, 0, 2, 4, 1
¿ – 0191
À – 0192
Á – 0193
 – 0194
à – 0195
Ä – 0196
Å – 0197
Æ – 0198
Ç – 0199
È – 0200
É – 0201
Ê – 0202
Ë – 0203
Ì – 0204
Í – 0205
Î – 0206
Ï – 0207
Ð – 0208
Ñ – 0209
Ò – 0210
Ó – 0211
Ô – 0212
Õ – 0213
Ö – 0214
Ø – 0216
Ù – 0217
Ú – 0218
Û – 0219
Ü – 0220
Ý – 0221
Þ – 0222
ß – 0223
à – 0224
á – 0225
â – 0226
ã – 0227
ä – 0228
å – 0229
æ – 0230
ç – 0231
è – 0232
é – 0233
ê – 0234
ë – 0235
ì – 0236
í – 0237
î – 0238
ï – 0239
ð – 0240
ñ – 0241
ò – 0242
ó – 0243
ô – 0244
õ – 0245
ö – 0246
ù – 0249
ú – 0250
û – 0251
ü – 0252
ý – 0253
þ – 0254
ÿ – 0255
**PS: buat yang aksen german, perancis dan spanyol sengaja ga’ gw tulis alt nya. Tapi penggunaannya tetep pake alt.
☺ (Smiley Face) Alt,1
☻ (Smiley Face black vers) Alt,2
♥ (Heart) Alt,3
♦ (Diamond) Alt,4
♣ (Club) Alt,5
♠ (Spade) Alt,6
• (Bullet) Alt,7
◘ (Bullet) Alt,8
♫ (Music Notes) Alt, 1, 4
☼ (Sun) Alt, 1, 5
(Arrow) Alt, 23-29
(Greek Alphabet) Alt, 224-238
(Math Symbol) Alt, 240-253

Kamen Rider ost Acoustic Guitar Version

LATIHAN MENTAL BAGI ATLET

Mengapa atlet perlu latihan mental?

Untuk dapat meningkatkan prestasi atau performa olahraganya, sang atlet perlu memiliki mental tangguh, sehingga ia dapat berlatih dan bertanding dengan semangat tinggi, dedikasi total, pantang menyerah, tidak mudah terganggu oleh masalah-masalah pribadi. Dengan demikian ia dapat menjalankan program latihannya dengan sungguh-sungguh, sehingga ia dapat memiliki fisik prima, teknik tinggi dan strategi bertanding yang tepat, sesuai dengan program latihan yang dirancang oleh pelatihnya. Dengan demikian terlihatlah bahwa latihan mental bertujuan agar atlet dapat mencapai prestasi puncak, atau prestasi yang kebih baik dari sebelumnya.
Untuk dapat memiliki mental yang tangguh tersebut, atlet perlu melakukan latihan mental yang sistematis, yang merupakan bagian tidak terpisahkan dari program latihan olahraga secara umum dan tertuang dalam perencanaan latihan tahunan atau periodesasi latihan.
Seringkali dijumpai bahwa masalh mental atlet sesungguhnya bukan murni merupakan masalh psikologis, namun juga disebabkan oleh faktor teknis atau fisiologis. Contohnya : jika kemampuan atlet menurun karena faktor kesalahan teknik gerakan, maka persepsi atlet terhadap kemampuan dirinya juga akan berkurang. Jika masalah kesalahan gerak ini tidak teridentifikasi dan tidak segera diperbaiki, maka kesalahan gerak ini akan menetap. Akibatnya, kemampuan atlet tidak meningkat sehingga atlet menjadi kecewa dan lama kelamaan bisa menjadi frustasi bahkan memiliki pikiran dan sikap negatif terhadap prestasi olahraganya.
Demikian juga dengan masalah yang disebabkan oleh faktor fisik, misalnya atlet menjadi lebih lambat, sehingga atlet tersebut seperti atlet yang memiliki motivasi rendah. Kedua contoh tersebut menunjukkan bahwa masalah mental tidak selalu disebabkan oleh faktor mental atau faktor psikologis. Jika penyebab masalahnya tidak terlebih dahulu diatasi, maka masalah mentalnya juga akan sulit diperbaiki. Dengan demikian, jika akan menerapkan latihan mental untuk mengatasi masalah mrntal psikologis, maka atlet, pelatih maupun psikolog olah raga harus tshu pasti bahwa penyebab masalhnya adalah masalah mental.


Jenis latihan mental

Membuat catatan harian mental (mental log)

Catatan latihan mental merupakan catatan harian yang ditulis setiap atlet selesai melakukan latihan, pertandingan, atau acara lain yang berkaitan dengan olah raganya. Dalam buku catatan latihan mental ini dapat dituliskan pikiran, bayangan, ketakutan, emosi, dan hal lain-lain yang dianggap penting dan relevan oleh atlet. catatan ini semestinya dapat menceritakan bagaimana atlet berpikir, bertindak, bereaksi, juga merupakan tempat untuk mencurahkan perasaan, kemarahan, frustasi, kecewa, dan segala perasaan negatif jika melakukan kegagalan atau tampil buruk.
Dengan melakukab perubahan pola pikir akan hal-hal negatif tadi menjadi positif, atlet dapat menggunakan catatan latihan mentalnya sebagai “langkah baru” – setalah mengalami frustasi, keraguan, ketakutan, ataupun perasaan berdosa/bersalah – untuk kembali membangun sikap mental yang posistif dan penuh percaya diri.


Penetapan Sasaran (goal setting)

Penetapan sasaran (goal settimg) perlu dilakukan agar atlet memiliki arah yang harus dituju. Sasaran tersebut bukan melulu berupa hasil akhir (output) dari mengikuti suatu kejuaraan. Penetapan sasaran ini sedapat mungkin harus bisa diukur agar dapat melihat perkembangan dari pencapaian sasaran yang ditetapkan. Selain itu pencapaian sasaran ini perlu ditetapkan sedemikian rupa secaara bersama-sama antara atlet dan pelatih. Sasaran tersebut tidak boleh terlalu mudah namun juga bukan sesuatu yang mustahil dapat tercapai. Jadi, sasaran tersebut harus dapat memberikan tantangan bahwa jika atlet bekerja keras maka sasaran tersebut dapat tercapai. Dengan demikian penetapan sasaran ini sekaligus dapat pula berfungsi sebagai pembangkit motivasi.


Latihan Relaksasi

Tujuan daripada latihan relaksasi, termasuk pula latihan manajemen stress, adalah untuk mengendalikan ketegangan, baik itu ketegangan fisik maupun psikolohis. Ada berbagai macam bentuk latihan relaksasi, namun yang paling mendasar adalah latihan relaksasi otot secara progresif. Tujuan daripada latihan ini adalah agar atlet dapat mengenali kapan saatnya harus rileks dan membedakannya dengan keadaan tegang.
Biasanya latihan relaksasi ini baru terasa hasilnya setelah dilakukan setiap hari selama minimal enam minggu (setiap kali latihan sekitar 20 menit). Sekali latihan ini dikuasai, maka semakin singkat waktu yang diperlukan untuk bisa mencapai keadaan rileks. Bentuk daripada latihan relaksasi lainnya adalah “autogenic training” dan berbagai latihan pernapasan. Latihan relaksasi ini juga menjadi dasar latihan pengendalian emosi dan kecemasan. Latihan relaksasi ini dapat pula dilakukan dengan bantuan alat seperti paket rekaman kaset latihan relaksasi yang mulai banyak beredar di pasaran.

Latihan visualisasi dan imajeri,

Latihan imajeri (mental imajeri) merupakan suatu bentuk latihan mental yang berupa pembayangan diri dan gerakan di dalam pikiran. Manfaat daripada latihan imajeri, antara lain adalah untuk mempelajari atau mengulan gerakan baru, memperbaiki gerakan yang salah atau belum sempurna, latihan simulasi dalam pikiran, latihan bagi atlet yang sedang rehabilitasi cedera. Latihan imajeri ini sering disamakan dengan latihan visualisasi karena sama-sama melakukan pembayangan gerakan di dalam pikiran. Namun, di dalam imajeri si atlet bukan hanya ‘melihat’ gerakan dirinyanamun juga memfungsikan indera pendengaran, perabaan, penciuman dan pengecapan. Untuk dapat menguasai latihan imajeri, seorang atlet harus dapat mahir dulu dalam melakukan latihan relaksasi.

Latihan Konsentrasi

Konsentrasi merupakan suatu keadaan dimana kesadaran seseoarang tertuju kepada suatu objek tertentu dalam waktu tertentu. Dalam olah raga, masalah yang paling sering timbul akibat terganggunya konsentrasi adalah berkurangnya akurasi lemparan, pukulan, tendangan, atau tembakan sehingga tidak menenai sasaran. Akibat lebih lanjut jika akurasi berkurang adalah straregi yang sudah dipersiapkan menjaddi tidak jalan sehingga atlet akhirnya kebingungan, tidak tahu harus bermain bagaimana dan pasti kepercayaan dirinya pun akan berkurang. Selain itu hilangnya konsentrasi saat melakukan aktivitas olah raga dapat pula menyebabkan cedera. Tujuan daripada latihan konsentrasi agar si atlet dapat memusatkan pikiran atau perhatiannya terhadap sesuatu yang ia lakukan tanpa terpengaruh oleh pikiran atau hal-hal lin yang terjadi di sekitarnya. Pemusatan perhatian tersebut juga harus berlangsung dalam waktu yang dibutuhkan. Agar didapatkan hasil yang maksimal, latihan konsentrasi ini biasanya baru dilakukan jika si atlet sudah menguasai latihan relaksasi. Salah satu bentuk latihan konsentrasi adalah dengan memfokuskan perhatian kepada suatu benda tertentu misalnya nyala lilin, jarum detik, bola atau alat yang digunakan dalam olah raganya. Lakukan selama mungkin dalam posisi meditasi.

Kapan sebaiknya atlet melakukan latihan mental ?

Latihan mental dilakukan selama atlet menjalani latihan olah raga, karena seharusnya latihan mental merupakan bagian tidak terpisahkan dari program latihan atau periodesasi latihan. Latihan-latihan tersebut ada yang memerlukan waktu khusus (terutama saat-saat pertama mempelajari latihan relaksasi dan konsentrasi), namun pada umumnya tidak terikat oleh waktu sehingga dapat dilakukan kapan saja.

Dengan sekilas uraian mengenai latihan mental bagi atlet, dengan harapan para atlet, pelatih maupun pembina olah raga semakin menyadari bahwa latihan mental sangat diperlukan untuk mendapatkan prestasi puncak, danuntuk melakukan latihan mental tersebut diperlukan proses dan alokasi waktu tersendiri.
Selamat berlatih tim Khasoes, semoga sukses mencapai prestasi puncak

film lucu 7

Key 103 - Car TV Commerical

POLISI GORONTALO MENGGILA.mp4

kecak

Kecak (pronounced [ˈketʃak], alternate spellings: Ketjak and Ketjack) is a form of Balinese music drama, originated in the 1930s and is performed primarily by men, although a few women's kecak groups exist as of 2006.^[1]
Also known as the Ramayana Monkey Chant, the piece, performed by a circle of 150 or more performers wearing checked cloth around their waists, percussively chanting "cak" and throwing up their arms, depicts a battle from the Ramayana where the monkey-like Vanara helped Prince Rama fight the evil King Ravana. However, Kecak has roots in sanghyang, a trance-inducing exorcism dance.^[2]

Contents [hide] 1 History 2 In popular culture 2.1 Film 2.2 Pop music 2.3 TV 2.4 Video game 3 Bibliography 4 Sources 5 External links 5.1 Listening

History

Kecak was originally a trance ritual accompanied by male chorus. German painter and musician Walter Spies became deeply interested in the ritual while living in Bali in the 1930s and worked to recreate it into a drama, based on the Hindu Ramayana and including dance, intended to be presented to Western tourist audiences. This transformation is an example of what James Clifford describes as part of the "modern art-culture system"^[3] in which, "the West or the central power adopts, transforms, and consumes non-Western or peripheral cultural elements, while making 'art' which was once embedded in the culture as a whole, into a separate entity."^[4] Spies worked with Wayan Limbak and Limbak popularized the dance by traveling throughout the world with Balinese performance groups. These travels have helped to make the Kecak famous throughout the world.

A Kecak dance being performed at Uluwatu, in Bali

A Kecak dance being performed at Kolese Kanisius, Jakarta

Performer, choreographer, and scholar I Wayan Dibia cites a contrasting theory that the Balinese were already developing the form when Spies arrived on the island.^[5] For example, well-known dancer I Limbak had incorporated Baris movements into the cak leader role during the 1920s. "Spies liked this innovation," and it suggested that Limbak, "devise a spectacle based on the Ramayana," accompanied by cak chorus rather than gamelan, as would have been usual.^[2]

In popular culture

Lists of miscellaneous information should be avoided. Please relocate any relevant information into appropriate sections or articles. (July 2008)

Film

• The 1971 version of Kenneth Anger's Rabbit's Moon incorporates Kecak into the soundtrack.
• Footage of a kecak performance is prominently featured in Ron Fricke's 1992 film Baraka.
• A kecak chant can be heard in Federico Fellini's classic 1969 film Satyricon. It was probably sampled from David Lewiston's 1969 LP of Balinese music entitled Golden Rain, released on the Nonesuch Explorer Series.
• Dagger of Kamui (Kamui no Ken), an anime film released in 1985, incorporates kecak in its score, often in action scenes involving shinobi.
• Kecak chanting is incorporated into the soundtrack for the Japanese animated film Akira (1988), which also uses the Indonesian gamelan prominently.
• Kecak is heard in I Never Promised You a Rose Garden during fantasy sequences taking place in the heroine's paracosm.
• A Kecak-style dance and chant can be seen in the fantasy portion of Tarsem Singh's film The Fall (2006), in which the Balinese actors incorporated words to describe the map being drawn.
• The chant is heard during a scene in the Coen Brothers' film Blood Simple (1985).
• A Kecak chant is shown for a few minutes close to the end of the erotic French drama Emmanuelle 2 (1975), when the main characters go to Bali.

Pop music

• A sample of Kecak chanting kicks off The Pop Group's 1980 album For How Much Longer Do We Tolerate Mass Murder?
• There is a sample of Kecak chanting on Poésie Noire's 1989 album Love Is Colder Than Death roughly 1 minutes 50 seconds into the song "Les excuses".
• The San Francisco Art Rock band Oxbow's song Daughter from their 1991 album King of the Jews incorporates Kecak-inspired polyrhythmic chanting and clapping throughout.
• Mike Patton performs a Kecak-like chant that is incorporated in the song "Goodbye Sober Day" on the 1999 Mr. Bungle album California. Patton had previously performed a similar passage of rhythmic chanting in the Faith No More song "Got That Feeling," from their 1997 Album of the Year.
• A sort of Kecak chant can be heard in Jade Warrior's Floating World side-B album, called simply "Monkey Chant". It has been mixed including a Jimi Hendrix-like guitar solo (played by David Duhig).
• A song from the debut album by musical group Hercules and Love Affair has an intro in the style of Kecak chanting.
• RMB (band) Rolf Maier Bodes Farid Gharadjedaghi/ RMB - Baraka, RMB - Chakka Chakka.
• A sample of Kecak chanting can be heard in the song "Soldier of Fortune" from Manhattan Transfer's album Bodies and Souls.
• A sample of Kecak chanting can be heard in the Devo song Jocko Homo.

TV

• David Attenborough's 1969 documentary for the BBC The Miracle of Bali on the arts in Bali featured the kecak in both the 1st and 3rd episodes.
• A Kecak chant is played during the closing credits of the Asian-influenced show Avatar: The Last Airbender.
• A Kecak dance is performed in a Season 2 episode of MTV's Wildboyz, with Chris Pontius and Steve-O eagerly participating in the ritual during their stay in Indonesia. Here it is referred to as a "Sardono Kecak".

Video game

• Kecak chanting forms the basis of the song "The Oracle" in the Super NES video game Secret of Mana.
• Kecak chanting is featured in the song "Kecak" in the Japanese music video game beatmania IIDX 11 – IIDX RED. Samples for this song are taken from Fellini's "Satyricon."
• Kecak is a mini-game in Capcom's Breath of Fire IV video game for PlayStation. The player mimics the chants by timing button presses corresponding to the screen.
• Kecak chanting is used as theme music for one of the unlock able enemy generals in the Atari game "Risk".

Bibliography

• Kecak from Bali. Produced by David Lewiston, 1990. One compact disc (duration 44:53) with notes and libretto by Fred B. Eiseman and David Lewiston. 9019. As of 1991 this was the only commercial release outside Bali which features only and a complete performance of kecak.^[6]
• I Wayan Dibia, Kecak: the vocal chant of Bali. Denpasar: Hartanto Art Books, 1996. vi + 83pp. Tables, photos, index. ISBN 979 95045 4 6. "This little book covers all the elements of Kecak"^[5]

Sources

1. ^ Cultural Liberty Under Spotlight at Women Playwrights. In the Jakarta Post, 2006-12-03, page found 2010-08-13.
2. ^ ^{a b} "'Cultural Tourism' in Bali: Cultural Performances as Tourist Attraction", p.59. Author(s): Michel Picard. Source: Indonesia, Vol. 49, (Apr., 1990), pp. 37-74. Published by: Southeast Asia Program Publications at Cornell University.
3. ^ James Clifford, The Predicament of Culture: Twentieth-Century Ethnography, Literature, and Art (Cambridge and London: Harvard University Press, 1988), p. 223. Cited in Yamashita (1999), p.178.
4. ^ Review: [untitled] Author(s): Shinji Yamashita. Reviewed work(s): Bali: Cultural Tourism and Touristic Culture by Michel Picard. Source: Indonesia, Vol. 67, (Apr., 1999), pp. 177-182. Published by: Southeast Asia Program Publications at Cornell University.
5. ^ ^{a b} Review: [untitled], p.195. Author(s): David W. Hughes. Reviewed work(s): Kecak: The Vocal Chant of Bali by I Wayan Dibia. Source: British Journal of Ethnomusicology, Vol. 6, (1997), pp. 195-195. Published by: British Forum for Ethnomusicology.
6. ^ Review: [untitled]. Author(s): David Harnish. Reviewed work(s): Kecak from Bali by David Lewiston. Source: Ethnomusicology, Vol. 35, No. 2, (Spring - Summer, 1991), pp. 302-304. Published by: University of Illinois Press on behalf of Society for Ethnomusicology

kingdom

In biology, kingdom (Latin: regnum, pl. regna) is a taxonomic rank, which is either the highest rank or in the more recent three-domain system, the rank below domain. Kingdoms are divided into smaller groups called phyla (in zoology) or divisions in botany. The complete sequence of ranks is life, domain, kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, genus, and species.
Currently, very few textbooks from the United States use a system of six kingdoms (Animalia, Plantae, Fungi, Protista, Archaea, Bacteria) while British, Australian and Colombian textbooks may describe five kingdoms (Animalia, Plantae, Fungi, Protista, and Prokaryota or Monera).
Historically, the number of kingdoms in widely accepted classifications has grown from two to six. However, phylogenetic research from about 2000 onwards does not support any of the traditional systems.

Contents [hide] 1 Two kingdoms 2 Three kingdoms 3 Four kingdoms 4 Five kingdoms 5 Six kingdoms 6 Cavalier-Smith's six kingdoms 7 Traditional kingdoms disappear 8 Summary 9 See also 10 References 11 External links

[edit] Two kingdoms

The classification of living things into animals and plants is an ancient one. Aristotle (384 BC–322 BC) classified animal species in his work the History of Animals, and his pupil Theophrastus (c. 371–c. 287 BC) wrote a parallel work on plants (the History of Plants).^[1]
Carolus Linnaeus (1707–1778) laid the foundations for modern biological nomenclature, now regulated by the Nomenclature Codes. He distinguished two kingdoms of living things: Regnum Animale ('animal kingdom') for animals and Regnum Vegetabile ('vegetable kingdom') for plants. (Linnaeus also included minerals, placing them in a third kingdom, Regnum Lapideum.) Linnaeus divided each kingdom into classes, later grouped into phyla for animals and divisions for plants.

	life Regnum Vegetabile Regnum Animale

[edit] Three kingdoms

In 1674, Antonie van Leeuwenhoek, often called the "father of microscopy", sent the Royal Society of London a copy of his first observations of microscopic single-celled organisms. Up to this time, the existence of such microscopic organisms was entirely unknown. At first these organisms were divided into animals and plants and placed in the appropriate Kingdom. However, by the mid-19th century it had become clear that "the existing dichotomy of the plant and animal kingdoms [had become] rapidly blurred at its boundaries and outmoded".^[2] In 1866, following earlier proposals by Richard Owen and John Hogg, Ernst Haeckel proposed a third kingdom of life. Haeckel revised the content of this kingdom a number of times before settling on a division based on whether organisms were unicellular (Protista) or multicellular (animals and plants).^[2]

	life Kingdom Protoctista Kingdom Plantae Kingdom Animalia

[edit] Four kingdoms

The development of microscopy, and the electron microscope in particular, revealed an important distinction between those unicellular organisms whose cells do not have a distinct nucleus, prokaryotes, and those unicellular and multicellular organisms whose cells do have a distinct nucleus, eukaryotes. In 1938, Herbert F. Copeland proposed a four-kingdom classification, moving the two prokaryotic groups, bacteria and "blue-green algae", into a separate Kingdom Monera.^[2]

	life Kingdom Monera (prokaryotes, i.e. bacteria and "blue-green algae") Kingdom Protista (single-celled eukaryotes) Kingdom Plantae Kingdom Animalia

It gradually became apparent how important the prokaryote/eukaryote distinction is, and Stanier and van Niel popularized Édouard Chatton's proposal in the 1960s to recognize this division in a formal classification. This required the creation, for the first time, of a rank above kingdom, a superkingdom or empire.^[3]

	life Empire Prokaryota Kingdom Monera Empire Eukaryota Kingdom Protista Kingdom Plantae Kingdom Animalia

[edit] Five kingdoms

The differences between fungi and other organisms regarded as plants had long been recognized. For example, at one point Haeckel moved the fungi out of Plantae into Protista, before changing his mind.^[2] Robert Whittaker recognized an additional kingdom for the Fungi. The resulting five-kingdom system, proposed in 1969, has become a popular standard and with some refinement is still used in many works and forms the basis for newer multi-kingdom systems. It is based mainly on differences in nutrition; his Plantae were mostly multicellular autotrophs, his Animalia multicellular heterotrophs, and his Fungi multicellular saprotrophs. The remaining two kingdoms, Protista and Monera, included unicellular and simple cellular colonies.^[4] The five kingdom system may be combined with the two empire system.

	life Empire Prokaryota Kingdom Monera Empire Eukaryota Kingdom Protista Kingdom Plantae Kingdom Fungi Kingdom Animalia

[edit] Six kingdoms

From around the mid-1970s onwards, there was an increasing emphasis on molecular level comparisons of genes (initially ribosomal RNA genes) as the primary factor in classification; genetic similarity was stressed over outward appearances and behavior. Taxonomic ranks, including kingdoms, were to be groups of organisms with a common ancestor, whether monophyletic (all descendants of a common ancestor) or paraphyletic (only some descendants of a common ancestor). Based on such RNA studies, Carl Woese divided the prokaryotes (Kingdom Monera) into two groups, called Eubacteria and Archaebacteria, stressing that there was as much genetic difference between these two groups as between either of them and all eukaryotes. Eukaryote groups, such as plants, fungi and animals may look different, but are more similar to each other in their genetic makeup at the molecular level than they are to either the Eubacteria or Archaebacteria. (It was also found that the eukaryotes are more closely related, genetically, to the Archaebacteria than they are to the Eubacteria.) Woese attempted to establish a "three primary kingdom" or "urkingdom" system.^[5] In 1990, the name "domain" was proposed for the highest rank.^[6] The six-kingdom system shown below represents a blending of the classic five-kingdom system and Woese's three-domain system. Such six-kingdom systems have become standard in many works.

	life Domain Bacteria Kingdom Bacteria Domain Archaea Kingdom Archaea Domain Eukarya Kingdom Protista Kingdom Plantae Kingdom Fungi Kingdom Animalia

Woese also recognized that the Protista kingdom was not a monophyletic group and might be further divided at the level of kingdom.

[edit] Cavalier-Smith's six kingdoms

Thomas Cavalier-Smith has published extensively on the evolution and classification of life, particularly protists. His views have been influential but controversial, and not always widely accepted.^[7] In 1998, he published a six-kingdom model,^[8] which has been revised in subsequent papers. The version published in 2004 is shown below.^[9] Cavalier-Smith does not accept the importance of the fundamental eubacteria–archaebacteria divide put forward by Woese and others. His Kingdom Bacteria includes the Archaebacteria as part of a subkingdom along with a group of eubacteria (Posibacteria).

	life Empire Prokaryota Kingdom Bacteria — includes Archaebacteria as part of a subkingdom Empire Eukaryota Kingdom Protozoa — e.g. Amoebozoa, Choanozoa, Rhizaria, Excavata, Alveolata Kingdom Chromista — e.g. cryptophytes, Heterokonta (stramenopiles), Haptophyta Kingdom Plantae — e.g. glaucophytes, red and green algae, land plants Kingdom Fungi Kingdom Animalia

See also: Thomas Cavalier-Smith

[edit] Traditional kingdoms disappear

One hypothesis of eukaryotic relationships

The "classic" six-kingdom system is still recognizably a modification of the original two-kingdom system: Animalia remains; the original category of plants has been split into Plantae and Fungi; and single-celled organisms have been introduced and split into Bacteria, Archaea and Protista.
Research published in the 21st century has produced a rather different picture. In 2004, a review article by Simpson and Roger noted that the Protista were "a grab-bag for all eukaryotes that are not animals, plants or fungi". They argued that only monophyletic groups–an ancestor and all of its descendents — should be accepted as formal ranks in a classification. On this basis, the diagram opposite (redrawn from their article) showed the real "kingdoms" (their quotation marks) of the eukaryotes.^[10] A classification produced in 2005 for the International Society of Protistologists, which reflected the consensus of the time, followed this approach, dividing the eukaryotes into the same six "supergroups".^[11] Although the published classification deliberately did not use formal taxonomic ranks, other sources have treated each of the six as a separate Kingdom.

life Domain Bacteria Bacteria Domain Archaea Archaea Domain Eukarya Amoebozoa — most lobose amoeboids and slime moulds Opisthokonta — animals, fungi, choanoflagellates, etc. Rhizaria — Foraminifera, Radiolaria, and various other amoeboid protozoa Archaeplastida (or Primoplantae) — Land plants, green algae, red algae, and glaucophytes Chromalveolata — Stramenopiles (or Heterokonta), Haptophyta, Cryptophyta (or cryptomonads), and Alveolata Excavata — Various flagellate protozoa

In this system, the traditional kingdoms have vanished. For example, research shows that the multicellular animals (Metazoa) are descended from the same ancestor as the unicellular choanoflagellates and the fungi. A classification system which places these three groups into different kingdoms (with multicellular animals forming Animalia, choanoflagellates part of Protista and Fungi a separate kingdom) is not monophyletic. The monophyletic group is the Opisthokonta, made up of all those organisms believed to have descended from a common ancestor, some of which are unicellular (choanoflagellates), some of which are multicellular but not closely related to animals (some fungi), and others of which are traditional multicellular animals.^[11]
However, in the same year as the International Society of Protistologists' classification was published (2005), doubts were being expressed as to whether some of these supergroups were monophyletic, particularly the Chromalveolata,^[12] and a review in 2006 noted the lack of evidence for several of the supposed six supergroups.^[13]
As of April 2010^[update], there appears to be a consensus that the six supergroup model does not reflect the true phylogeny of the eukaryotes, although there is no agreement as to the model which should replace it.^[14][15][16]

[edit] Summary

The sequence from the two-kingdom system up to Cavalier-Smith's six-kingdom system can be summarized in the table below.

Linnaeus 1735[17] 2 kingdoms	Haeckel 1866[18] 3 kingdoms	Chatton 1925[19][20] 2 empires	Copeland 1938[21][22] 4 kingdoms	Whittaker 1969[4] 5 kingdoms	Woese et al. 1977[5][23] 6 kingdoms	Woese et al. 1990[24] 3 domains	Cavalier-Smith 2004[9] 6 kingdoms
(not treated)	Protista	Prokaryota	Monera	Monera	Eubacteria	Bacteria	Bacteria
					Archaebacteria	Archaea
		Eukaryota	Protoctista	Protista	Protista	Eukarya	Protozoa
							Chromista
Vegetabilia	Plantae			Fungi	Fungi		Fungi
			Plantae	Plantae	Plantae		Plantae
Animalia	Animalia		Animalia	Animalia	Animalia		Animalia

Note that the equivalences in this table are not perfect. For example, Haeckel placed the red algae (his Florideae, modern Florideophyceae) and blue-green algae (his Archephyta, modern Cyanobacteria) in his Plantae.
However, research in the 21st century does not support the classification of the eukaryotes into any of these systems. As of April 2010^[update], the situation appears to be that there is no set of kingdoms sufficiently supported by current research to gain widespread acceptance; as Roger & Simpson say: "with the current pace of change in our understanding of the eukaryote tree of life, we should proceed with caution."

WOWOW